To detect a FLP, the region of interest is amplified in a standard PCR reaction with one fluorescently labeled primer, and the PCR products are directly analyzed on a capillary sequencer. Fragment sizes are determined automatically relative to an internal size standard with AppliedBiosystem's GeneMapper software (for details see Materials and methods). The software then allocates fragment sizes to previously calibrated genotypes.

Taq polymerase has the tendency to catalyze the addition of adenosine (A) to the 3' end of PCR products. This activity could make it difficult to achieve the single base-pair resolution required to assay all available InDels and may hamper allele-calling 23. However, we have found that the sensitivity of a capillary sequencer and the genotyping software is sufficient to allow for unambiguous allele assignment even for 'difficult' sequences exhibiting 3' A addition. The examples shown in Figure 1a-d illustrate that robust genotyping is feasible for 1-bp InDels even when 3' A addition occurs. Another problem is the stuttering of the polymerase when it encounters poly(N) stretches. However, larger InDels are reliably detected by the software in poly(N) stretches (Figure 1f), and in a few difficult cases visual inspection can even resolve and unambiguously assign 'stuttering' 1-bp InDels according to the location and number of peaks (Figure 1e).

Genotyping with FLP assays is extremely accurate. In a control experiment, we genotyped all 96 samples of the fly strains FRT42B and EP0755 for the 1-bp InDel 2R090 and 231 samples homo- and heterozygous for the C. elegans Bristol and Hawaii backgrounds, respectively, for the 1-bp InDel ZH5-16. 2R090 exhibits both stuttering and A addition and hence is especially difficult to resolve (see Additional data file 8). The genotype was correctly and automatically assigned by GeneMapper in all 423 assays. Thus, automated genotyping based on FLPs is sensitive down to single base-pair resolution and is extremely robust. The accuracy of FLP mapping is comparable to other methods such as TaqMan (error rate less than 1 in 2,000 24), minisequencing (99.5% 25), and pyrosequencing (97.3 % 25).

In C. elegans, genetic experiments are performed almost exclusively in the background of the standard wild-type strain N2 (C. elegans variety Bristol) 26. For gene mapping experiments, the polymorphic strain CB4856 (C. elegans, variety Hawaii) has proved extremely useful 3. When compared to N2, CB4856 contains on average one SNP every 840 bp and approximately 25% of all polymorphisms are InDels 14. Starting from the dataset previously published by Wicks et al. 3, 112 FLPs that are evenly spaced on the physical map of C. elegans were validated to date (Figure 2a). The confirmation rate of the predicted InDels was 88% (n = 169). Most failures to detect a FLP are probably due to original sequencing errors. The average distance between neighboring FLP assays is about 0.9 Mbp. This physical distance corresponds to about 3 cM, assuming 300 kb per map unit, and encompasses between 100 and a maximum of 500 genes (Figure 2a). The length of the amplicons ranges from 100 to 444 bp, and the fragment length differences are between 1 and 21 bp (Additional data file 9). If necessary, another 2,454 predicted InDels are available to increase the mapping resolution down to 50 kbp on average (Additional data files 12-17).

To establish a Drosophila FLP map, a set of 54 FLP assays (12 to 17 per arm of the two major autosomes) was validated from the list of polymorphisms identified by Berger et al. 2 (Figure 2b, and Additional data file 10); high-resolution X-chromosomal SNP and FLP maps have yet to be established. Similarly to C. elegans, the confirmation rate of the predicted Drosophila InDels was 80% (n = 30). Furthermore, another 509 InDels are predicted at 248 sites for which an assay can be established to discriminate between EP and FRT strains (Additional data file 18). The validated Drosophila FLP assays were evenly spaced on the genetic map with an average distance between neighboring assays of about 4 cM, corresponding to an average resolution of 1.77 Mbp on the physical map encompassing 95,55 Mbp 2728. Taking into account the non-validated InDels, the maximal average resolution is currently 314 kb or 0.7 cM. On the left arm of chromosome 3, where the genetic map is inexact, FLPs were spaced on the physical map assuming colinearity between the two maps. The length of amplicons ranges from 99 to 365 bp, and the size difference ranges from 1 to 54 bp (Additional data file 9).

Our Drosophila FLP assays are in part derived from a set of InDels of size difference 7 bp or more (termed PLPs by Berger et al. 2). However, since 86.8% of all Drosophila InDels exhibit a length difference of one to six nucleotides 2, so far only a small subset of the available InDels has been covered. The approach presented here significantly increases the number of possible FLP assays for genotyping and offers a greater flexibility and higher resolution.

To demonstrate the usefulness of the C. elegans FLP map, we mapped three previously characterized mutations on chromosome II that exhibit diverse phenotypes. Those were the centrally located let-23(sy1) allele that causes an 80% penetrant vulvaless phenotype 29, rol-1(e91) in the middle of the left chromosome arm, which causes the animals to roll around their body axis 30, and the unc-52(e444) mutation located at the right end of the chromosome, which results in a paralyzed phenotype 31. Mutant hermaphrodites were crossed with CB4856 males, and wild-type F₁ cross-progeny was selected (F₁ self-progeny would exhibit a mutant phenotype). Finally, mutant self-progeny was isolated in the F₂ generation and used for genotyping (Figure 3a). To minimize the number of PCR reactions, we pursued a two-step strategy. First, we determined chromosomal linkage by analyzing 16 individual F₂ animals (corresponding to 32 chromosomes in total) with one centrally located FLP assay per chromosome (Tier 1, Figure 2a). This allowed us to establish clear linkage to chromosome 2 for all three mutations (Additional data file 2). Surprisingly, the rol-1(e91) mutation showed linkage to the X chromosome of N2 in addition to chromosome II. This pseudo-linkage could be due to a suppressor of the Rol phenotype present on the CB4856 X chromosome. In a second step, 48 F₂ animals for each mutation were analyzed with eight FLP assays along chromosome 2 (Tier 2, Figure 2a). In this way, we could narrow down the three mutations to the correct chromosomal subregions (Additional data files 3-5). We used the same strategy to map the zh41 mutation that was identified in a forward genetic screen for mutants exhibiting a loss of egl-17::gfp expression in the vulval cell linage (32 and I. Rimann and A. Hajnal, unpublished work). Analysis with Tier 1 established linkage to chromosome 1 (Figure 3b), and Tier 2 narrowed down the candidate region to an interval of 2.2 Mbp containing 498 genes (Figure 3c). The phenotype of zh41 animals is similar to the phenotype caused by loss-of-function mutations in lin-11, which maps to the same interval in the center of chromosome I 33. Like lin-11 mutants, zh41 animals exhibit a penetrant protruding vulva (Pvl) phenotype, and staining of the adherens junctions with the MH27 antibody showed defects in the formation of the vulval torroid rings (Figure 3d) 33. Subsequent sequencing of the lin-11 locus in zh41 animals revealed a point mutation that results in a change of leucine 274 to phenylalanine. Furthermore, zh41 failed to complement lin-11(n389), indicating that the zh41 mutation in the lin-11 open reading frame (ORF) is responsible for the vulval phenotype.

In cases where a mutation maps to an interval that contains no obvious candidate gene, we first screen for additional informative recombinants by FLP analysis and then refine the map position by extracting more FLPs from our set of non-validated InDels (Additional data files 12-17) and by genotyping existing SNPs in the candidate interval 3. In many cases, this resolution is sufficient to identify the affected gene through RNA interference (RNAi) analysis of the genes in the corresponding interval 34. (See Additional data file 6 for a detailed flowchart of the mapping process).

In summary, FLP mapping in C. elegans allows us to rapidly map a mutation down to a small region containing, on average, 200 candidate genes by crossing a mutant strain to CB4856 and analyzing 48 F₂ animals with 300 to 500 PCR reactions.

In contrast to the well defined genetic backgrounds used for C. elegans, zebrafish (Danio rerio) or Arabidopsis genetics, Drosophila strains are very heterogeneous and of ill-defined origin 2911. In this respect, gene mapping in Drosophila resembles human genetics in that standard inbred lines do not exist and the genotypes of the parental lines have to be determined first. As genome-wide polymorphism databases for reference strains are available 211, a line of interest can be crossed with two reference strains, such as EP and FRT (see below). Owing to the codominant character of sequence polymorphisms, at least one of the two respective crosses will distinguish between the mutant and the mapping chromosomes. To further facilitate mapping with our set of FLP assays, we genotyped several common laboratory lines such as two 'wild-type' yw strains for the whole set, four FRT-Minute or FRT-cell-lethal strains at the relevant autosomal arms 35, as well as the FRT and EP reference strains at both relevant autosomal arms (Figure 2b). Surprisingly, the FRT and EP lines are largely not of FRT or EP genotype on the chromosome arm for which they have not been calibrated. Overall, we found novel alleles for 18 of the 48 assays, and in an extreme case, we even observed five different alleles in five examined strains (2R017, Figure 2b). This result further highlights the heterogeneity of Drosophila strains (see Additional data file 1 for further details on FLP calibration and fly genetics).

In a genetic screen devised to isolate genes that regulate growth and are situated on chromosome 2R, we found a complementation group characterized by a mild overgrowth phenotype (Figure 4b (2), and C. Rottig and E.H., unpublished work). From a cross between allele VI.29 and EP0755 we recovered three types of recombinant chromosomes: recombinants with a crossover proximal or distal to the mutation, respectively, and double-crossovers (Figure 4a, see also Additional data file 1 for further details on the crossing scheme). The mutation could be placed 16.9 cM proximal to EP0755 and 38.7 cM distal to FRT42D. The FLPs in the recombinant flies were directly analyzed without backcrossing the recombinant chromosome into a parental strain background. DNA was prepared from recombinants by a novel high-throughput protocol (see Materials and methods). We genotyped 34 distal crossover events, 40 proximal crossovers, and eight double-crossovers. This analysis placed the mutation between markers 2R096 and 2R109 (Figure 4c). This interval includes the tumor suppressor hippo 36, and subsequent complementation analysis confirmed VI.29 as a weak hippo allele (data not shown). Furthermore, data from this and other FLP mappings in this region allowed us to further refine the genetic map (Additional data file 11). This kind of experimental data is helpful to space new FLP assays more evenly on the genetic map should the available map turn out to be inexact.

If the resolution of the validated FLP map is too low to identify a candidate gene, we further refine the map position by several approaches. First, we design novel FLP-assays in the region of interest and genotype the most informative recombinants from the first round of FLP mapping (Additional data file 18). Second, we genotype recombinants with SNPs available in the region of interest and resolve them by RFLP, sequencing or DHPLC 29. Third, we perform complementation analysis with recently established Drosophila lines with molecularly defined deletions 3738. (See Additional data file 7 for a detailed flowchart illustrating the mapping process.)

Culturing and crossing of C. elegans was done according to standard procedures described in 26. C. elegans alleles used were: LG I: lin-11(zh41), lin-11(n389); LG II: rol-1(e91), let-23(sy1), unc-52(e444). Drosophila strains and the genetic screen have been described previously 935404142.

Adult worms were collected in 10 μl lysis buffer (50 mM KCl, 10 mM Tris pH 8.2, 2.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.45% NP-40, 0.45% Tween-20, 100 μg/ml freshly added proteinase K) and incubated for 60 min at 65°C followed by heat-inactivation of proteinase K at 95°C for 10 min. Before PCR, 90 μl double-distilled H₂O (ddH₂O) was added to obtain a total volume of 100 μl per lysate.

DNA from recombinant flies was extracted in bulk by squishing flies through mechanical force in a vibration mill (Retsch MM30) programmed to shake for 20 sec at 20 strokes per second 43. Single flies were placed into wells of a 96-well format deep-well plate with each well filled with 200 μl squishing buffer (10 mM Tris-Cl pH 8.2, 1 mM EDTA, 0.2% Triton X-100, 25 mM NaCl, 200 μg/ml freshly added proteinase K) and a tungsten carbide bead (Qiagen). The deep-well plate was then sealed with a rubber mat (Eppendorf) and clamped into the vibration mill. (Tungsten carbide beads can be recycled: after an overnight incubation in 0.1 M HCl and thorough washing in ddH₂O the beads are virtually free of contaminating DNA.) Debris was allowed to settle for about 5 min, and 50 μl of each supernatant were transferred into a 96-well PCR plate. The reactions were incubated in a thermo-cycler for 30 min at 37°C and finally for 10 min at 95°C to heat-inactivate proteinase K. Before PCR amplification, the crude DNA extracts were diluted 20-fold to reduce the concentration of proteins that might be harmful for the capillary sequencer.

Diluted single-worm lysates (2 μl samples) or single fly extracts were added to 23 μl PCR reaction mix. Final concentrations in the PCR reaction were: 0.4 μM forward/reverse primer, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 2 mM MgCl₂, 1x PCR reaction buffer, 0.25 U EuroTaq polymerase (Euroclone). PCR reaction setup was done in 96-well plates using a Tecan Genesis pipetting robot with disposable tips. PCR was carried out in two MJR thermo-cyclers that are integrated into the robot. The current setup allows for the sequential processing of six 96-well plates at a time. Cycling parameters were 2 min 95°C, 20 sec 95°C, 20 sec 61°C (-0.5°C for each cycle), 45 sec 72°C (for 10 cycles) followed by 24 cycles of 20 sec 95°C, 20 sec 56°C, 45 sec 72°C and a 10 min 72°C final extension. Following PCR, reactions were diluted 1:100 in water, and 2 μl diluted PCR products were mixed with 10 μl HiDi formamide containing 0.025 μl LIZ500 size standard (Applied Biosystems). This dilution before analysis on the capillary sequencer is necessary to reduce signal intensity because too strong signals compromise data analysis. In addition, sample dilution reduces the risk of damaging the capillaries with proteins or lipids present in the crude lysates. The dilution was done with standard tips using the Tecan Genesis pipetting station. Carryover of fragments was prohibited by a simple wash step with H₂O. Fragments were analyzed on an ABI3730 capillary sequencer using POP7 polymer according to standard procedures. Data were analyzed using AppliedBiosystems GeneMapper software and raw data were treated further with Microsoft Excel.